- Industry: Economy; Printing & publishing
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Any market where money and other liquid assets (such as treasury bills) can be lent and borrowed for between a few hours and a few months. Contrast with capital markets, where longer-term capital changes hands.
Industry:Economy
Makes the world go round and comes in many forms, from shells and beads to gold coins to plastic or paper. It is better than barter in enabling an economy’s scarce resources to be allocated efficiently. Money has three main qualities:
* as a medium of exchange, buyers can give it to sellers to pay for goods and services;
* as a unit of account, it can be used to add up apples and oranges in some common value;
* as a store of value, it can be used to transfer purchasing power into the future. A farmer who exchanges fruit for money can spend that money in the future; if he holds on to his fruit it might rot and no longer be useful for paying for something. Inflation undermines the usefulness of money as a store of value, in particular, and also as a unit of account for comparing values at different points in time. Hyper-inflation may destroy confidence in a particular form of money even as a medium of exchange. Measures of liquidity describe how easily an asset can be exchanged for money (the easier this is, the more liquid is the asset).
Industry:Economy
What a central bank does to control the money supply, and thereby manage demand. Monetary policy involves open-market operations, reserve requirements and changing the short-term rate of interest (the discount rate). It is one of the two main tools of macroeconomic policy, the side-kick of fiscal policy, and is easier said than done well. (See monetarism. )
Industry:Economy
Changes in the money supply have no effect on real economic variables such as output, real interest rates and unemployment. If the central bank doubles the money supply, the price level will double too. Twice as many dollars means half as much bang for the buck. This theory, a core belief of classical economics, was first put forward in the 18th century by David Hume. He set out the classical dichotomy that economic variables come in two varieties, nominal and real, and that the things that influence nominal variables do not necessarily affect the real economy. Today few economists think that pure monetary neutrality exists in the real world, at least in the short run. Inflation does affect the real economy because, for instance, there may be sticky prices or money illusion.
Industry:Economy
A market economy in which both private-sector firms and firms owned by government take part in economic activity. The proportions of public and private enterprise in the mix vary a great deal among countries. Since the 1980s, the public role in most mixed economies declined as nationalization gave way to privatization.
Industry:Economy
The sum of a country’s inflation and unemployment rates. The higher the score, the greater is the economic misery.
Industry:Economy
A minimum rate of pay that firms are legally obliged to pay their workers. Most industrial countries have a minimum wage, although certain sorts of workers are often exempted, such as young people or part-timers. Most economists reckon that a minimum wage, if it is doing what it is meant to do, will lead to higher unemployment than there would be without it. The main justification offered by politicians for having a minimum wage is that the wage that would be decided by buyers and sellers in a free market would be so low that it would be immoral for people to work for it. So the minimum wage should be above the market-clearing wage, in which case fewer workers would be demanded at that wage than would be hired at the market wage. How many fewer will depend on how far the minimum wage is above the market wage?
Some economists have challenged this simple supply and demand model. Several empirical studies have suggested that a minimum wage moderately above the free-market wage would not harm employment much and could (in rare circumstances) potentially raise it. These studies are not widely accepted among economists. Whatever it does for those in work, a minimum wage cannot help the majority of the very poorest people in most countries, who typically have no job in which to earn a minimum wage.
Industry:Economy
Loved and loathed; perhaps the most influential economist of his generation. He won the Nobel Prize for economics in 1976, one of many Chicago school economists to receive that honor. He has been recognized for his achievements in the study of consumption, monetary history and theory, and for demonstrating how complex policies aimed at economic stabilization can be. A fierce advocate of free markets, Mr. Friedman argued for monetarism at a time when Keynesian policies were dominant. Unusually, his work is readily accessible to the layman. He argues that the problems of inflation and short-run unemployment would be solved if the Federal Reserve had to increase the money supply at a constant rate. Like Adam Smith and Friedrich Hayek, who inspired him, Mr. Friedman praises the free market not just for its economic efficiency but also for its moral strength. For him, freedom--economic, political and civil--is an end in itself, not a means to an end. It is what makes life worthwhile. He has said he would prefer to live in a free country, even if it did not provide a higher standard of living, than a country run by an alternative regime. However, the likelihood of a free country being poorer than an unfree one strikes him as implausible; the economic as well as the moral superiority of free markets is, he has declared, "now proven". An adviser to Richard Nixon, he was disappointed when the president went against the spirit of monetarism in 1971 by asking him to urge the chairman of the Fed to increase the money supply more rapidly. The 1980s economic policies of Margaret Thatcher and General Pinochet were inspired--and defended--by Mr. Friedman. However, in 2003, he admitted that one of those policies, the targeting of the money supply, had "not been a success" and that he doubted he would "as of today push it as hard as I once did".
Industry:Economy
The study of the individual pieces that together make an economy. Contrast with macroeconomics, the study of economy-wide phenomena such as growth, inflation and unemployment. Microeconomics considers issues such as how households reach decisions about consumption and saving, how firms set a price for their output, whether privatization improves efficiency, whether a particular market has enough competition in it and how the market for labor works.
Industry:Economy
When a market left to itself does not allocate resources efficiently. Interventionist politicians usually allege market failure to justify their interventions. Economists have identified four main sorts or causes of market failure. * The abuse of market power, which can occur whenever a single buyer or seller can exert significant influence over prices or output (see monopoly and monopsony). * externalities – when the market does not take into account the impact of an economic activity on outsiders. For example, the market may ignore the costs imposed on outsiders by a firm polluting the environment. * public goods, such as national defense. How much defense would be provided if it were left to the market?
* Where there is incomplete or asymmetric information or uncertainty. Abuse of market power is best tackled through antitrust policy. Externalities can be reduced through regulation, a tax or subsidy, or by using property rights to force the market to take into account the welfare of all who are affected by an economic activity. The supply of public goods can be ensured by compelling everybody to pay for them through the tax system.
Industry:Economy
