- Industry: Economy; Printing & publishing
- Number of terms: 15233
- Number of blossaries: 1
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Lagging; slow to respond. Traditionally, econo¬mists believed that high unemployment was a ¬cyclical phenomenon. Eventually, unemployment would cause people to lower their wage de¬mands, and so new job opportunities would arise and unemployment would fall. More recently, however, economists have suggested that some unemployed people, especially the long-term jobless, can display hysteresis. They find it hard, perhaps impossible, to return to work, even when jobs become available. For instance, unemployed workers may gradually lose the motivation, self-confidence or the self-discipline, needed to get to the workplace and fulfil job requirements. Or their skills may become outdated and redundant. State benefits for the jobless may contribute to this hysteresis by making it easier from them to stay out of work.
Industry:Economy
Earmarking taxes for a specific purpose. It may be a clever way to get around public hostility to paying more in taxation. If people are told that a specific share of their income tax will go to some popular cause, say education or health, they may be more willing to cough up. At the very least they may be forced to make more informed decisions about the trade-offs between taxes and public services. There is a downside, however. Hypothecated taxes may tie the hands of a government at times when the hypothecated revenue could be spent to better effect elsewhere in the public sector. Conversely, and perhaps more likely, hypothecated taxes may prove to be less hypothecated than the public is led to believe. Civil servants, doubtless under pressure from their political bosses, can usually find ways to fudge the definition of the specific purpose for which a tax is hypothecated, letting government regain control over how the money is spent.
Industry:Economy
Very, very bad. Although people debate when, precisely, very rapid inflation turns into ¬hyper-inflation (a 100% or more increase in prices a year, perhaps?) nobody questions that it wreaks huge economic damage. After the first world war, German prices at one point were rising at a rate of 23,000% a year before the country’s economic system collapsed, creating a political opportunity grasped by the Nazis. In former Yugoslavia in 1993, prices rose by around 20% a day. Typically, hyper-inflation quickly leads to a complete loss of confidence in a country’s currency, and causes people to search for other forms of money that are a better store of value. These may include physical assets, gold and foreign currency. Hyper-inflation might be easier to live with if it was stable, as people could plan on the basis that prices would rise at a fast but predictable rate. However, there are no examples of stable hyper-inflation, precisely because it occurs only when there is a crisis of confidence across the economy, with all the behavioral unpredictability this implies.
Industry:Economy
The “good life” guide. Calculated since 1990 by the United Nations Development Program, the Human Development Index quantifies a country’s development in terms of such things as education, length of life and clean water, as well as income. Since the mid-1970s, the quality of life for humans throughout the world has improved enormously overall. America's human development index rose by around one-tenth between 1975 and 2001, for example. More spectacularly, during the same period, China's rose by around 40% and Indonesia's by nearly 50%. Even so, in 2001, some 54 countries were poorer than in 1990, and in 34, mostly in Africa and the former Soviet Union, life expectancy had fallen, reversing an impressive long-term trend, largely because of the HIV/AIDS epidemic and crime. Some 21 countries had a lower overall human development index in 2003 than in 1990.
Industry:Economy
The stuff that enables people to earn a living. Human capital can be increased by investing in education, training and health care. Economists increasingly argue that the accumulation of human as well as physical capital (plant and machinery) is a crucial ingredient of economic growth, par¬ticularly in the new economy. Even so, this conclusion is largely a matter of theory and faith, rather than the result of detailed empirical analysis. Economists have made little progress in solving the tricky problem of how to measure human capital, even within the same country over time, let alone for comparisons between countries. Levels of spending on, say, education are not necessarily a good indicator of how much human capital an education system is creating; indeed, some economists argue that higher education spending may be a consequence of a country becoming wealthy rather than a cause. Never the less, even modest estimates of the stock of human capital in most countries suggests that it would pay to greatly increase investment in medical technologies that would extend the working lives of most people. The non-economic benefits would be worth having, too.
Industry:Economy
When they go through the roof it is usually a warning sign that an economy is overheating. House prices often rise after interest rate reductions, which lower mortgage payments and thus give buyers the ability to fund a larger amount of borrowing and so offer a higher price for their new home. Strangely, people often regard house-price inflation as good news, even though it creates as many losers as gainers. They argue that rising house prices help to boost consumer confidence, and are part of the wealth effect: as house prices rise, people feel wealthier and so spend more. However, against this must be set a negative wealth effect. An increase in house prices makes many people worse off, such as first-time buyers and anyone planning to trade up to a better property. As long as people think that their house is a vehicle for speculation, rather than merely accommodation, it seems inevitable that prices will be volatile, prone to a boom-bust cycle. As house prices rise, profits are made, tempting more speculative buyers into the market; eventually, they start to pay too much, interest rates rise, demand falls and prices plunge. People have also invested in housing as a hedge against inflation: house prices generally rise when other prices rise, whereas the real value of mortgage debt is eroded by inflation. However, when mortgage interest rates are variable (as they generally are in the UK) rather than fixed (as in the United States), they may rise painfully during times of high inflation as a result of macroeconomic policy efforts to slow the pace of economic growth. One of the reasons why the United States has long-term fixed mortgage rates is the financing provided by government-sponsored agencies such as the Federal National Mortgage Association and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, nicknamed, respectively, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. Economists increasingly debate their role, especially as they have grown into some of the world's largest lenders. Supporters claim that, as well as reducing macroeconomic volatility, they make housing more affordable, particularly for poorer people, and that other governments should play a similar role in the mortgage market. Critics say they have become a huge potential risk in the global financial system by creating a moral hazard through the controversial but widespread belief that if they were to get into difficulties the government would bail them out and, thus, their financial counterparties.
Industry:Economy
Money that is held in one currency but is liable to switch to another currency at a moment’s notice in search of the highest available returns, thereby causing the first currency’s exchange rate to plummet. It is often used to describe the money invested in currency markets by speculators.
Industry:Economy
Merging with another firm just like yours, for example, two biscuit makers becoming one. Contrast with vertical integration, which is merging with a firm at a different stage in the supply chain. Horizontal integration often raises antitrust concerns, as the combined firm will have a larger market share than either firm did before merging.
Industry:Economy
One way to keep taxation fair. Horizontal equity means that people with a similar ability to pay taxes should pay the same amount. (See equity and vertical equity. )
Industry:Economy
